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Sunday, May 10, 2009
http://vlsitsa.itri.org.tw/2009/General/
Wednesday, April 15, 2009
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking, and is illegal in some countries.
In Australia, North America and Europe many operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is typically subsidised with revenue from subscriptions, and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's mobiles. A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves. While most web sites offer the unlocking for a fee, some do it for free. The locking applies to the handset, identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, not to the account (which is identified by the SIM card).
In some countries such as Bangladesh, Belgium, Costa Rica, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan, all phones are sold unlocked. However, in Belgium, it is unlawful for operators there to offer any form of subsidy on the phone's price. This was also the case in Finland until April 1, 2006, when selling subsidized combinations of handsets and accounts became legal, though operators have to unlock phones free of charge after a certain period (at most 24 months).
[edit] GSM security
GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation. GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its ability and plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack.[13] The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.
One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking, and is illegal in some countries.
In Australia, North America and Europe many operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is typically subsidised with revenue from subscriptions, and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's mobiles. A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves. While most web sites offer the unlocking for a fee, some do it for free. The locking applies to the handset, identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, not to the account (which is identified by the SIM card).
In some countries such as Bangladesh, Belgium, Costa Rica, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan, all phones are sold unlocked. However, in Belgium, it is unlawful for operators there to offer any form of subsidy on the phone's price. This was also the case in Finland until April 1, 2006, when selling subsidized combinations of handsets and accounts became legal, though operators have to unlock phones free of charge after a certain period (at most 24 months).
GSM security
GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation. GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its ability and plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack.[13] The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.
Network structure
Network structure
The network behind the GSM seen by the customer is large and complicated in order to provide all of the services which are required. It is divided into a number of sections and these are each covered in separate articles.
- the Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
- the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
- the GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections).
- all of the elements in the system combine to produce many GSM services such as voice calls and SMS.
Cellular Radio Network
Cellular Radio Network
GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity.
There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.
Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometres. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cell.
The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).
[edit] GSM Frequencies
GSM networks operate in a number of different frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G). Most 2G GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated. Most 3G GSM networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band.
The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.
GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station (uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used.
In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This 'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880–915 MHz (uplink) and 925–960 MHz (downlink), adding 50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
Voice Codecs
GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (5.6 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.
GSM was further enhanced in 1997[12] with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full rate channels, and less robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels.
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications:
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications: originally from Groupe Spécial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its promoter, the GSM Association, estimates that 80% of the global mobile market uses the standard.[1] GSM is used by over 3 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories.[2][3] Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling and speech channels are digital, and thus is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into the system.
The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers (who benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without switching phones) and also to network operators (who can choose equipment from any of the many vendors implementing GSM[4]). GSM also pioneered a low-cost (to the network carrier) alternative to voice calls, the Short message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards as well. Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone number, 112[5]. This makes it easier for international travellers to connect to emergency services without knowing the local emergency number.
Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM phones. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities, by means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
Thursday, March 19, 2009
Asic desin flow
1. About The Document:
This document briefly explains the usage of Magma Electronic Design Automation (EDA) Tool for the design of the Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) Flow. This tool will take you from Register Transfer Level (RTL) to Graphical Design Standard II (GDSII) format.2. The basic requirement to use this document:
This document is prepared aiming the person with little digital circuit design knowledge using any HDL language. Assuming the person is aware of the ASIC Design flow and Digital Optimization techniques (Is explained briefly below).
3. Introduction to ASIC Design Flow:
Any IC other than a general purpose IC which contain the functionality of thousands of gates is usually called an ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit). ASICs are designed to fit a certain application. An ASIC is a digital or mixed-signal circuit designed to meet specifications set by a specific project. The basic ASIC Design Flow is Shown in Figure 3.1.
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Figure 3.1: ASIC Design Flow |
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| Figure 3.2: EDA Tool Flow for ASIC Design |
The EDA Tool that is used for synthesis of a RTL code to GDS II format is Magma Blast Fusion. The details of the Magma Design Flow is explained below
4. Introduction Magma ASIC Design Flow:
Blast Plan Pro is used for the hierarchical design of large integrated circuits (ICs) and systems-on-chip (SoCs) with Magma's production-proven RTL-to-GDSII flow. Hierarchical design methodologies are typically adopted to handle very large designs or to support the concurrent design of a complex chip by a design team. Blast Plan Pro meets both of these requirements and delivers the additional benefit of predictable design closure.
The Magma tools form an integrated set of design engines that are combined with a Tcl interpreter and a sophisticated graphical user interface (GUI). These tools are software applications developed and distributed by Magma Design Automation Incorporated.
The typical simplified design flow of the Magma Blast Fusion is shown in the below Figure 3.
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This tutorial describes how to use the Magma Blast Fusion using command prompt to run these steps on a provided design. Follow the instructions provided in this tutorial to create scripts that perform the steps for the provided design.
The following Figure 4 shows the structure of this tutorial. The instructions for importing the design and constraints depend on whether you start from a netlist or from RTL. After you import the design and constraints, the remaining flow steps are the same.
Friday, December 12, 2008
Floorplanning Methods
7.2. Floorplanning Methods
Floorplanning is chip-level layout design. When designing a leaf cell, we used transistors and vias as our basic components; floorplanning uses the adders, registers, and FSMs as the building blocks. The fundamental difference between floorplanning and leaf-cell design is that floorplanning works with components that are much larger than the wires connecting them. This great size mismatch forces us to analyze the layout differently and to make different trade-offs during design.
Many chips are composed from cells of a variety of shapes and sizes, as shown in Figure 7-1. We call the layout cells blocks during floorplanning because we use them like building blocks to construct the floorplan. In bricks-and-mortar style layout, the cells may have radically different sizes and shapes. The layout program must place the components on the chip by position and orientation, leaving sufficient space between the components for the necessary wires. Blocks may be redesigned to change their aspect ratio in order to improve the floorplan. As we will see, the more complex traffic pattern of wiring areas makes routing wires in a bricks-and-mortar layout much harder than in a standard cell layout. (Some people use the term standard cell for any layout, including brick-and-mortar, which is built from pre-designed components. Since standard cell is a much abused term, be sure you understand its meaning in the context in which it is used.)
Figure 7-1. A typical layout, built from a variety of styles.
The next example shows the floorplan for a large chip.
Example 7-1. Floorplan of the IBM Power 2 Super Chip
The Power 2 Super Chip (P2SC) is a large microprocessor. It has over 15 million transistors (5.7 million logic, 9.3 million cache) on an 18.2x18.4mm2 die. The chip is fabricated in a 0.27μm, 5-level-metal process. The chip comes in 120 and 135 MHz versions.
The chip photomicrograph has been overlaid below with the floorplan showing the major functional units:
Photo courtesy of IBM.
Tom Way, IBM Microelectronics, Essex Junction, VT
This chip is large enough that each of the units in the chip-level floorplan has its own internal floorplan. The DCU units contain memory arrays as well as driver and control logic. The ICU unit contains several data paths along with the necessary control logic.
Floorplanning is chip-level layout design. When designing a leaf cell, we used transistors and vias as our basic components; floorplanning uses the adders, registers, and FSMs as the building blocks. The fundamental difference between floorplanning and leaf-cell design is that floorplanning works with components that are much larger than the wires connecting them. This great size mismatch forces us to analyze the layout differently and to make different trade-offs during design.
Many chips are composed from cells of a variety of shapes and sizes, as shown in Figure 7-1. We call the layout cells blocks during floorplanning because we use them like building blocks to construct the floorplan. In bricks-and-mortar style layout, the cells may have radically different sizes and shapes. The layout program must place the components on the chip by position and orientation, leaving sufficient space between the components for the necessary wires. Blocks may be redesigned to change their aspect ratio in order to improve the floorplan. As we will see, the more complex traffic pattern of wiring areas makes routing wires in a bricks-and-mortar layout much harder than in a standard cell layout. (Some people use the term standard cell for any layout, including brick-and-mortar, which is built from pre-designed components. Since standard cell is a much abused term, be sure you understand its meaning in the context in which it is used.)
Figure 7-1. A typical layout, built from a variety of styles.
The next example shows the floorplan for a large chip.
Example 7-1. Floorplan of the IBM Power 2 Super Chip
The Power 2 Super Chip (P2SC) is a large microprocessor. It has over 15 million transistors (5.7 million logic, 9.3 million cache) on an 18.2x18.4mm2 die. The chip is fabricated in a 0.27μm, 5-level-metal process. The chip comes in 120 and 135 MHz versions.
The chip photomicrograph has been overlaid below with the floorplan showing the major functional units:
Photo courtesy of IBM.
Tom Way, IBM Microelectronics, Essex Junction, VT
This chip is large enough that each of the units in the chip-level floorplan has its own internal floorplan. The DCU units contain memory arrays as well as driver and control logic. The ICU unit contains several data paths along with the necessary control logic.
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